Abhijit Mishra


2023

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Eyes Show the Way: Modelling Gaze Behaviour for Hallucination Detection
Kishan Maharaj | Ashita Saxena | Raja Kumar | Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2023

Detecting hallucinations in natural language processing (NLP) is a critical undertaking that demands a deep understanding of both the semantic and pragmatic aspects of languages. Cognitive approaches that leverage users’ behavioural signals, such as gaze, have demonstrated effectiveness in addressing NLP tasks with similar linguistic complexities. However, their potential in the context of hallucination detection remains largely unexplored. In this paper, we propose a novel cognitive approach for hallucination detection that leverages gaze signals from humans. We first collect and introduce an eye tracking corpus (IITB-HGC: IITB-Hallucination Gaze corpus) consisting of 500 instances, annotated by five annotators for hallucination detection. Our analysis reveals that humans selectively attend to relevant parts of the text based on distributional similarity, similar to the attention bias phenomenon in psychology. We identify two attention strategies employed by humans: global attention, which focuses on the most informative sentence, and local attention, which focuses on important words within a sentence. Leveraging these insights, we propose a novel cognitive framework for hallucination detection that incorporates these attention biases. Experimental evaluations on the FactCC dataset demonstrate the efficacy of our approach, obtaining a balanced accuracy of 87.1%. Our study highlights the potential of gaze-based approaches in addressing the task of hallucination detection and sheds light on the cognitive processes employed by humans in identifying inconsistencies.

2020

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Happy Are Those Who Grade without Seeing: A Multi-Task Learning Approach to Grade Essays Using Gaze Behaviour
Sandeep Mathias | Rudra Murthy | Diptesh Kanojia | Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the Asia-Pacific Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 10th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing

The gaze behaviour of a reader is helpful in solving several NLP tasks such as automatic essay grading. However, collecting gaze behaviour from readers is costly in terms of time and money. In this paper, we propose a way to improve automatic essay grading using gaze behaviour, which is learnt at run time using a multi-task learning framework. To demonstrate the efficacy of this multi-task learning based approach to automatic essay grading, we collect gaze behaviour for 48 essays across 4 essay sets, and learn gaze behaviour for the rest of the essays, numbering over 7000 essays. Using the learnt gaze behaviour, we can achieve a statistically significant improvement in performance over the state-of-the-art system for the essay sets where we have gaze data. We also achieve a statistically significant improvement for 4 other essay sets, numbering about 6000 essays, where we have no gaze behaviour data available. Our approach establishes that learning gaze behaviour improves automatic essay grading.

2019

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Unsupervised Neural Text Simplification
Sai Surya | Abhijit Mishra | Anirban Laha | Parag Jain | Karthik Sankaranarayanan
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

The paper presents a first attempt towards unsupervised neural text simplification that relies only on unlabeled text corpora. The core framework is composed of a shared encoder and a pair of attentional-decoders, crucially assisted by discrimination-based losses and denoising. The framework is trained using unlabeled text collected from en-Wikipedia dump. Our analysis (both quantitative and qualitative involving human evaluators) on public test data shows that the proposed model can perform text-simplification at both lexical and syntactic levels, competitive to existing supervised methods. It also outperforms viable unsupervised baselines. Adding a few labeled pairs helps improve the performance further.

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Storytelling from Structured Data and Knowledge Graphs : An NLG Perspective
Abhijit Mishra | Anirban Laha | Karthik Sankaranarayanan | Parag Jain | Saravanan Krishnan
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Tutorial Abstracts

In this tutorial, we wish to cover the foundational, methodological, and system development aspects of translating structured data (such as data in tabular form) and knowledge bases (such as knowledge graphs) into natural language. The attendees of the tutorial will be able to take away from this tutorial, (1) the basic ideas around how modern NLP and NLG techniques could be applied to describe and summarize textual data in format that is non-linguistic in nature or has some structure, and (2) a few interesting open-ended questions, which could lead to significant research contributions in future. The tutorial aims to convey challenges and nuances in structured data translation, data representation techniques, and domain adaptable solutions for translation of the data into natural language form. Various solutions, starting from traditional rule based/heuristic driven and modern data-driven and ultra-modern deep-neural style architectures will be discussed, followed by a brief discussion on evaluation and quality estimation. A significant portion of the tutorial will be dedicated towards unsupervised, scalable, and adaptable solutions, given that systems for such an important task will never naturally enjoy sustainable large scale domain independent labeled (parallel) data.

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Scalable Micro-planned Generation of Discourse from Structured Data
Anirban Laha | Parag Jain | Abhijit Mishra | Karthik Sankaranarayanan
Computational Linguistics, Volume 45, Issue 4 - December 2019

We present a framework for generating natural language description from structured data such as tables; the problem comes under the category of data-to-text natural language generation (NLG). Modern data-to-text NLG systems typically use end-to-end statistical and neural architectures that learn from a limited amount of task-specific labeled data, and therefore exhibit limited scalability, domain-adaptability, and interpretability. Unlike these systems, ours is a modular, pipeline-based approach, and does not require task-specific parallel data. Rather, it relies on monolingual corpora and basic off-the-shelf NLP tools. This makes our system more scalable and easily adaptable to newer domains. Our system utilizes a three-staged pipeline that: (i) converts entries in the structured data to canonical form, (ii) generates simple sentences for each atomic entry in the canonicalized representation, and (iii) combines the sentences to produce a coherent, fluent, and adequate paragraph description through sentence compounding and co-reference replacement modules. Experiments on a benchmark mixed-domain data set curated for paragraph description from tables reveals the superiority of our system over existing data-to-text approaches. We also demonstrate the robustness of our system in accepting other popular data sets covering diverse data types such as knowledge graphs and key-value maps.

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A Modular Architecture for Unsupervised Sarcasm Generation
Abhijit Mishra | Tarun Tater | Karthik Sankaranarayanan
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

In this paper, we propose a novel framework for sarcasm generation; the system takes a literal negative opinion as input and translates it into a sarcastic version. Our framework does not require any paired data for training. Sarcasm emanates from context-incongruity which becomes apparent as the sentence unfolds. Our framework introduces incongruity into the literal input version through modules that: (a) filter factual content from the input opinion, (b) retrieve incongruous phrases related to the filtered facts and (c) synthesize sarcastic text from the incongruous filtered and incongruous phrases. The framework employs reinforced neural sequence to sequence learning and information retrieval and is trained only using unlabeled non-sarcastic and sarcastic opinions. Since no labeled dataset exists for such a task, for evaluation, we manually prepare a benchmark dataset containing literal opinions and their sarcastic paraphrases. Qualitative and quantitative performance analyses on the data reveal our system’s superiority over baselines built using known unsupervised statistical and neural machine translation and style transfer techniques.

2018

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Eyes are the Windows to the Soul: Predicting the Rating of Text Quality Using Gaze Behaviour
Sandeep Mathias | Diptesh Kanojia | Kevin Patel | Samarth Agrawal | Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Predicting a reader’s rating of text quality is a challenging task that involves estimating different subjective aspects of the text, like structure, clarity, etc. Such subjective aspects are better handled using cognitive information. One such source of cognitive information is gaze behaviour. In this paper, we show that gaze behaviour does indeed help in effectively predicting the rating of text quality. To do this, we first we model text quality as a function of three properties - organization, coherence and cohesion. Then, we demonstrate how capturing gaze behaviour helps in predicting each of these properties, and hence the overall quality, by reporting improvements obtained by adding gaze features to traditional textual features for score prediction. We also hypothesize that if a reader has fully understood the text, the corresponding gaze behaviour would give a better indication of the assigned rating, as opposed to partial understanding. Our experiments validate this hypothesis by showing greater agreement between the given rating and the predicted rating when the reader has a full understanding of the text.

2017

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Learning Cognitive Features from Gaze Data for Sentiment and Sarcasm Classification using Convolutional Neural Network
Abhijit Mishra | Kuntal Dey | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 55th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Cognitive NLP systems- i.e., NLP systems that make use of behavioral data - augment traditional text-based features with cognitive features extracted from eye-movement patterns, EEG signals, brain-imaging etc. Such extraction of features is typically manual. We contend that manual extraction of features may not be the best way to tackle text subtleties that characteristically prevail in complex classification tasks like Sentiment Analysis and Sarcasm Detection, and that even the extraction and choice of features should be delegated to the learning system. We introduce a framework to automatically extract cognitive features from the eye-movement/gaze data of human readers reading the text and use them as features along with textual features for the tasks of sentiment polarity and sarcasm detection. Our proposed framework is based on Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). The CNN learns features from both gaze and text and uses them to classify the input text. We test our technique on published sentiment and sarcasm labeled datasets, enriched with gaze information, to show that using a combination of automatically learned text and gaze features often yields better classification performance over (i) CNN based systems that rely on text input alone and (ii) existing systems that rely on handcrafted gaze and textual features.

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Graph Based Sentiment Aggregation using ConceptNet Ontology
Srikanth Tamilselvam | Seema Nagar | Abhijit Mishra | Kuntal Dey
Proceedings of the Eighth International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)

The sentiment aggregation problem accounts for analyzing the sentiment of a user towards various aspects/features of a product, and meaningfully assimilating the pragmatic significance of these features/aspects from an opinionated text. The current paper addresses the sentiment aggregation problem, by assigning weights to each aspect appearing in the user-generated content, that are proportionate to the strategic importance of the aspect in the pragmatic domain. The novelty of this paper is in computing the pragmatic significance (weight) of each aspect, using graph centrality measures (applied on domain specific ontology-graphs extracted from ConceptNet), and deeply ingraining these weights while aggregating the sentiments from opinionated text. We experiment over multiple real-life product review data. Our system consistently outperforms the state of the art - by as much as a F-score of 20.39% in one case.

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CVBed: Structuring CVs usingWord Embeddings
Shweta Garg | Sudhanshu S Singh | Abhijit Mishra | Kuntal Dey
Proceedings of the Eighth International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers)

Automatic analysis of curriculum vitae (CVs) of applicants is of tremendous importance in recruitment scenarios. The semi-structuredness of CVs, however, makes CV processing a challenging task. We propose a solution towards transforming CVs to follow a unified structure, thereby, paving ways for smoother CV analysis. The problem of restructuring is posed as a section relabeling problem, where each section of a given CV gets reassigned to a predefined label. Our relabeling method relies on semantic relatedness computed between section header, content and labels, based on phrase-embeddings learned from a large pool of CVs. We follow different heuristics to measure semantic relatedness. Our best heuristic achieves an F-score of 93.17% on a test dataset with gold-standard labels obtained using manual annotation.

2016

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Leveraging Cognitive Features for Sentiment Analysis
Abhijit Mishra | Diptesh Kanojia | Seema Nagar | Kuntal Dey | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 20th SIGNLL Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning

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Leveraging Annotators’ Gaze Behaviour for Coreference Resolution
Joe Cheri | Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Cognitive Aspects of Computational Language Learning

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Harnessing Cognitive Features for Sarcasm Detection
Abhijit Mishra | Diptesh Kanojia | Seema Nagar | Kuntal Dey | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

2015

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A Computational Approach to Automatic Prediction of Drunk-Texting
Aditya Joshi | Abhijit Mishra | Balamurali AR | Pushpak Bhattacharyya | Mark J. Carman
Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers)

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TransChat: Cross-Lingual Instant Messaging for Indian Languages
Diptesh Kanojia | Shehzaad Dhuliawala | Abhijit Mishra | Naman Gupta | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Natural Language Processing

2014

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Shata-Anuvadak: Tackling Multiway Translation of Indian Languages
Anoop Kunchukuttan | Abhijit Mishra | Rajen Chatterjee | Ritesh Shah | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)

We present a compendium of 110 Statistical Machine Translation systems built from parallel corpora of 11 Indian languages belonging to both Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families. We analyze the relationship between translation accuracy and the language families involved. We feel that insights obtained from this analysis will provide guidelines for creating machine translation systems of specific Indian language pairs. We build phrase based systems and some extensions. Across multiple languages, we show improvements on the baseline phrase based systems using these extensions: (1) source side reordering for English-Indian language translation, and (2) transliteration of untranslated words for Indian language-Indian language translation. These enhancements harness shared characteristics of Indian languages. To stimulate similar innovation widely in the NLP community, we have made the trained models for these language pairs publicly available.

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A cognitive study of subjectivity extraction in sentiment annotation
Abhijit Mishra | Aditya Joshi | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis

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The IIT Bombay Hindi-English Translation System at WMT 2014
Piyush Dungarwal | Rajen Chatterjee | Abhijit Mishra | Anoop Kunchukuttan | Ritesh Shah | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation

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Measuring Sentiment Annotation Complexity of Text
Aditya Joshi | Abhijit Mishra | Nivvedan Senthamilselvan | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)

2013

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Automatically Predicting Sentence Translation Difficulty
Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya | Michael Carl
Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)

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TransDoop: A Map-Reduce based Crowdsourced Translation for Complex Domain
Anoop Kunchukuttan | Rajen Chatterjee | Shourya Roy | Abhijit Mishra | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations

2012

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A heuristic-based approach for systematic error correction of gaze data for reading
Abhijit Mishra | Michael Carl | Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Proceedings of the First Workshop on Eye-tracking and Natural Language Processing